There is increasing evidence in humans and laboratory animals for biologically based sex
differences in every phase of drug addiction: acute reinforcing effects, transition from …

Sex/gender effects have been demonstrated for multiple aspects of addiction, with one of the
most commonly cited examples being the “telescoping effect” where women meet criteria …

In the twentieth century, the dominant model of sexual differentiation stated that genetic sex
(XX versus XY) causes differentiation of the gonads, which then secrete gonadal hormones …

Research has elucidated causal links between stress exposure and the development of
anxiety disorders, but due to the limited use of female or sex-comparative animal models …

Major depressive disorder is a heritable psychiatric syndrome that appears to be associated
with subtle cellular and molecular alterations in a complex neural network. The affected …

Adolescence is a time of increased divergence between males and females in physical
characteristics, behavior, and risk for psychopathology. Here we will review data regarding …

Microglia, the resident innate immune cells in the brain, have long been understood to be
crucial to maintenance in the nervous system, by clearing debris, monitoring for infiltration of …

The 1959 publication of the paper by Phoenix et al. was a major turning point in the study of
sexual differentiation of the brain. That study showed that sex differences in behavior, and by …

Biological differences between men and women contribute to many sex-specific illnesses
and disorders. Historically, it was argued that such differences were largely, if not …

In essentially every domain of neuroscience, the generally implicit assumption that few, if
any, meaningful differences exist between male and female brain function is being …