This paper is the 28th consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning
the endogenous opioid system, now spanning over a quarter-century of research. It …

Opioids are widely prescribed for pain management, and it is estimated that 40% of adults in
the United States use prescription opioids every year. Opioid misuse leads to high mortality …

To obtain insights into the emergence of rhythmogenic circuits supporting respiration, we
monitored spontaneous activities in isolated brainstem and medullary transverse slice …

The first two postnatal weeks are the most dynamic in the development of brain stem
respiratory nuclei in the rat, the primary model for this review. Several neurochemicals …

Respiratory depression is the main cause of morbidity and mortality associated with opioids.
Obesity increases opioid-related mortality, which is mostly related to comorbid obstructive …

Background: Electroacupuncture (EA) can produce analgesia by increasing the β-endorphin
level and activation of peripheral μ-opioid receptors in inflamed tissues. Endogenous …

We have previously shown that the balance of electrically evoked descending brainstem
control of spinal nociceptive reflexes undergoes a switch from excitation to inhibition in …

The non-medical use of prescription opiates, such as Vicodin® and MSContin®, has
increased dramatically over the past decade. Of particular concern is the rising popularity of …

Epidemiological studies show the prevalence of opioid use, misuse and abuse in
adolescents, which imposes social and economic accountability worldwide. Chronic opioid …

Background Hypoglossal (XII) motoneurons innervate tongue muscles and are vital for
maintaining upper-airway patency during inspiration. Depression of XII nerve activity by …