Research on the effects of opioids on immune responses was stimulated in the 1980s by the
intersection of use of intravenous heroin and HIV infection, to determine if opioids were …

Conspectus Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the “gatekeepers” of the immune system in
humans and other animals to protect the host from invading bacteria, viruses, and other …

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) recognizes exogenous pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPs) and endogenous danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and initiates the …

The etiology of migraine pain involves sensitized meningeal afferents that densely innervate
the dural vasculature. These afferents, with their cell bodies located in the trigeminal …

Concern over antibiotic resistance is growing, and new classes of antibiotics, particularly
against Gram-negative bacteria, are needed. However, even if the scientific hurdles can be …

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a widespread disease with limited treatment options.
Targeting the neuroimmune system is a new avenue for developing or repurposing effective …

Drugs of abuse cause persistent alterations in synaptic plasticity that may underlie addiction
behaviors. Evidence suggests glial cells have an essential and underappreciated role in the …

Opioid use for long-term pain management is limited by adverse side effects, such as
hyperalgesia and negative affect. Neuroinflammation in the brain and spinal cord is a …

The innate immune response in the central nervous system (CNS) participates in both
synaptic plasticity and neural damage. Emerging evidence from human and animal studies …

Although morphine remains the primary drug prescribed for alleviation of severe or
persistent pain, both preclinical and clinical studies have shown that females require two to …