Secretion of interferons (IFNs) from virus-infected cells is a hallmark of host antiviral
immunity and in fact, IFNs exert their antiviral activities through the induction of antiviral …

Introduction 2.1. Tissue Factor (TF)-dependent activation of coagulation system 2.2.
Endothelial cells (ECs) directed Hemostasis 2.3. Virus life cycle 2.4. TLRs expression …

The 2021/2022 epizootic of high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAIV) remains one of the
largest ever in the UK, being caused by a clade 2.3. 4.4 b H5N1 HPAIV. This epizootic …

Influenza A viruses are amongst the most challenging viruses that threaten both human and
animal health. Influenza A viruses are unique in many ways. Firstly, they are unique in the …

Avian influenza viruses (AIV) raise worldwide veterinary and public health concerns due to
their potential for zoonotic transmission. While infection with highly pathogenic AIV results in …

Avian influenza viruses pose a threat to wildlife and livestock health. The emergence of
highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in wild birds and poultry in North America in late …

The avian influenza A virus (AIV) is naturally prevalent in aquatic birds, infecting different
avian species and transmitting from birds to humans. Both AIVs, the H5N1 and H7N9 …

Despite efforts made to develop efficient preventive strategies, infections with influenza A
viruses (IAV) continue to cause serious clinical and economic problems. Current licensed …

The hemagglutinin (HA) is a prime determinant of the pathogenicity of influenza A viruses. It
initiates infection by binding to cell surface receptors and by inducing membrane fusion. The …

Future demands for food will place agricultural systems under pressure to increase
production. Poultry is accepted as a good source of protein and the poultry industry will be …