Viruses and their hosts are engaged in a constant arms race leading to the evolution of
antiviral defence mechanisms. Recent studies have revealed that the immune arsenal of …

In bacteria and archaea, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
(CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins constitute an adaptive immune system …

INTRODUCTION Bacteria and archaea are frequently attacked by viruses (phages) and as a
result have developed multiple, sophisticated lines of active defense that can collectively be …

CRISPR–Cas systems provide microbes with adaptive immunity by employing short DNA
sequences, termed spacers, that guide Cas proteins to cleave foreign DNA,. Class 2 …

BACKGROUND Prokaryotes have evolved multiple systems to combat invaders such as
viruses and plasmids. Examples of such defense systems include receptor masking …

Prokaryotes have evolved several defence mechanisms to protect themselves from viral
predators. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and their …

BACKGROUND The arms race between prokaryotes and their perpetually evolving
predators has fueled the evolution of a defense arsenal. The so-called CRISPR-Cas …

Prokaryotes have numerous mobile genetic elements (MGEs) that mediate horizontal gene
transfer (HGT) between cells. These elements can be costly, even deadly, and cells use …

Bacteria and archaea have evolved sophisticated adaptive immune systems, known as
CRISPR–Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats–CRISPR …

Effective clearance of an infection requires that the immune system rapidly detects and
neutralizes invading parasites while strictly avoiding self-antigens that would result in …