In nature, animals display defensive behaviors that reflect the spatiotemporal distance of
threats. Laboratory-based paradigms that elicit specific defensive responses in rodents have …

Chronic, pathological pain remains a global health problem and a challenge to basic and
clinical sciences. A major obstacle to preventing, treating, or reverting chronic pain has been …

Noradrenaline modulates global brain states and diverse behaviors through what is
traditionally believed to be a homogeneous cell population in the brainstem locus coeruleus …

Highlights•Central amygdala circuits mediate defensive and appetitive responses.•Central
amygdala circuit activity is controlled by local inhibitory interactions.•Central amygdala …

Emotional learning and memory are functionally and dysfunctionally regulated by the
neuromodulatory state of the brain. While the role of excitatory and inhibitory neural circuits …

Overcoming aversive emotional memories requires neural systems that detect when fear
responses are no longer appropriate so that they can be extinguished. The midbrain ventral …

A host of learning, memory, and decision-making processes form the individual's response
to threat and may be disrupted in anxiety and post-trauma psychopathology. Here we review …

Experience-driven synaptic plasticity in the lateral amygdala is thought to underlie the
formation of associations between sensory stimuli and an ensuing threat. However, how the …

Pain is an unpleasant experience. How the brain's affective neural circuits attribute this
aversive quality to nociceptive information remains unknown. By means of time-lapse in vivo …

Despite the exponential increase in fear research during the last years, few studies have
included female subjects in their design. The need to include females arises from the …