Exposure to microplastics (MP) in aquatic environment leads to bioaccumulation in fish, with
MP size being a major factor in determining the accumulation profile. MPs absorbed into the …

Cellular immune responses consist of innate and adaptive cell-mediated immune
mechanisms, where all leukocyte subpopulations are included. Among these are vital …

The immune system is composed of two subsystems—the innate immune system and the
adaptive immune system. The innate immune system is the first to respond to pathogens and …

Nowadays, the application of immunomodulators in aquaculture has become of an urgent
need because of high incidence of fish and shrimp diseases. For a long time, researchers …

Innate immunity is a semi‐specific and widely distributed form of immunity, which represents
the first line of defence against pathogens. This type of immunity is critical to maintain …

Medicinal plants have been known as immunostimulants for thousands of years. The
application of medicinal plants as natural and innocuous compounds has potential in …

Molecular oxygen is a necessary compound for all aerobic organisms, although oxygen is a
potent oxidant, which can cause oxidative stress (OS). OS occurs when there is an …

The innate immune system is the only defence weapon of invertebrates and a fundamental
defence mechanism of fish. The innate system also plays an instructive role in the acquired …

Aquaculture is the fastest growing animal food sector worldwide and expected to further
increase to feed the growing human population. However, existing and (re-) emerging …

Over the years, aquaculture has shown increasing development in terms of production.
However, due to intensive farming practices, infectious diseases represent the main problem …