Chronic (continuous, non-interrupted) hypoxia and cycling (intermittent, transient) hypoxia
are two types of hypoxia occurring in malignant tumors. They are both associated with the …

Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that mediate immune cell chemotaxis and lymphoid
tissue development. Recent advances have indicated that chemokines and their cognate …

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) have been implicated in the promotion of breast
cancer growth and metastasis, and multiple TAM-secreted cytokines have been identified …

Oncogene activation and tumor-suppressor gene inactivation are considered as the main
causes driving the transformation of normal somatic cells into malignant tumor cells. Cancer …

Cellular senescence is a tumor-suppressive mechanism that permanently arrests cells at
risk for malignant transformation. However, accumulating evidence shows that senescent …

G protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs) and heterotrimeric G proteins play central roles in a
diverse array of cellular processes. As such, dysregulation of GPCRs and their coupled …

Cellular senescence has been perceived as a barrier against carcinogenesis. However, the
senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) of senescent cells can promote …

Cellular senescence, which is associated with aging, is a process by which cells enter a
state of permanent cell cycle arrest, therefore constituting a potent tumor suppressive …

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), the largest family of cell-surface molecules involved
in signal transmission, have recently emerged as crucial players in tumour growth and …

Tumor heterogeneity is a hallmark of cancer and one of the primary causes of resistance to
therapies. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), which accounts for 15–20% of all breast …