The term 'stress'–coined in 1936–has many definitions, but until now has lacked a
theoretical foundation. Here we present an information-theoretic approach–based on the …

Energy demand of neurons in brain that is covered by glucose supply from the blood is
ensured by glucose transporters in capillaries and brain cells. In brain, the facilitative …

A large body of evidence has indicated that the phasic responses of midbrain dopamine
neurons show a remarkable similarity to a type of teaching signal (temporal difference (TD) …

After ingestion of toxin-contaminated food, the brain initiates a series of defensive responses
(eg, nausea, retching, and vomiting). How the brain detects ingested toxin and coordinates …

Midbrain dopamine neurons are well known for their role in reward-based reinforcement
learning. We found that the activity of dopamine axons in the posterior tail of the striatum …

The liver is an essential metabolic organ, and its metabolic activity is tightly controlled by
insulin and other metabolic hormones. Glucose is metabolized into pyruvate through …

Highlights•Glutamatergic neurons in the parabrachial nucleus provide main ascending
arousal influence from the brainstem.•GABAergic neurons in the brainstem provide the main …

The essential role of the brain in maintaining energy homeostasis has motivated the drive to
define the neural circuitry that integrates external and internal stimuli to enact appropriate …

Many human spinal cord injuries are anatomically incomplete but exhibit complete paralysis.
It is unknown why spared axons fail to mediate functional recovery in these cases. To …

Coughing is a respiratory behavior that plays a crucial role in protecting the respiratory
system. Here we show that the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) in mice contains …