The observation that unhealthy diets (those that are low in whole grains, fruits and
vegetables, and high in sugar, salt, saturated fat and ultra-processed foods) are a major risk …

The accurate definition and staging of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is one of the major
achievements of modern nephrology. Intensive research is now being undertaken to unravel …

Choline is a water-soluble nutrient essential for human life. Gut microbial metabolism of
choline results in the production of trimethylamine (TMA), which, upon absorption by the host …

The term epigenetics was first used to refer to the complex interactions between the genome
and the environment that are involved in development and differentiation in higher …

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) shares many phenotypic similarities with other chronic
diseases, including heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, HIV infection and …

Context Cardiovascular mortality is considered the main cause of death in patients receiving
dialysis and is 10 to 20 times higher in such patients than in the general population …

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) refers to the localized dilatation of the infra-renal aorta, in
which the diameter exceeds 3.0 cm. Loss of vascular smooth muscle cells, degradation of …

Parkinson disease (PD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder with high incidence in
the elderly, where environmental and genetic factors are involved in etiology. In addition …

Uremic toxins, such as indoxyl sulfate (IS) and p-cresol, or p-cresyl sulfate (PCS), are
markedly accumulated in the organs of chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. These toxins …

Context Changes over time in epigenetic marks, which are modifications of DNA such as by
DNA methylation, may help explain the late onset of common human diseases. However …