Glucose is the long-established, obligatory fuel for brain that fulfills many critical functions,
including ATP production, oxidative stress management, and synthesis of neurotransmitters …

Lactate in the brain has long been associated with ischaemia; however, more recent
evidence shows that it can be found there under physiological conditions. In the brain …

The energy demands of the brain are high: they account for at least 20% of the body's
energy consumption. Evolutionary studies indicate that the emergence of higher cognitive …

In a state of oxidative stress, there is an increase of reactive species, which induce an
altered intracellular signaling, leading to dysregulation of the inflammatory response. The …

Spreading depression (SD) is a transient wave of near-complete neuronal and glial
depolarization associated with massive transmembrane ionic and water shifts. It is …

Astrocyte activation and reactive gliosis accompany most of the pathologies in the brain,
spinal cord, and retina. Reactive gliosis has been described as constitutive, graded, multi …

Microglia are highly motile cells that continuously monitor the brain environment and
respond to damage-associated cues. While glucose is the main energy substrate used by …

l-lactate is a product of aerobic glycolysis that can be used by neurons as an energy
substrate. Here we report that in neurons l-lactate stimulates the expression of synaptic …

Glycogen metabolism has important implications for the functioning of the brain, especially
the cooperation between astrocytes and neurons. According to various research data, in a …

Memory, the ability to retain learned information, is necessary for survival. Thus far,
molecular and cellular investigations of memory formation and storage have mainly focused …