Phenotypes that vary in response to DNA mutations are essential for evolutionary adaptation
and innovation. Therefore, it seems that robustness, a lack of phenotypic variability, must …

The history of life is a history of evolutionary innovations, qualitatively new phenotypic traits
that endow their bearers with new, often game-changing abilities. We know many individual …

“Natural selection can preserve innovations, but it cannot create them. Nature's many
innovations—some uncannily perfect—call for natural principles that accelerate life's ability …

Some evolutionary innovations may originate non-adaptively as exaptations, or pre-
adaptations, which are by-products of other adaptive traits,,,,. Examples include feathers …

Evolutionary dynamics is often viewed as a subtle process of change accumulation that
causes a divergence among organisms and their genomes. However, this interpretation is …

An evolutionary constraint is a bias or limitation in phenotypic variation that a biological
system produces. One can distinguish physicochemical, selective, genetic and …

The metabolic genotype of an organism can change through loss and acquisition of enzyme-
coding genes, while preserving its ability to survive and synthesize biomass in specific …

Since the last decade of the twentieth century, systems biology has gained the ability to
study the structure and function of genome-scale metabolic networks. These are systems of …

Robustness and evolvability are the main properties that account for the stability and
accessibility of phenotypes. They have been studied in a number of computational genotype …

Redundancy is a ubiquitous feature of genetic programming (GP), with many-to-one
mappings commonly observed between genotype and phenotype, and between phenotype …