Astrocytes are neural cells of ectodermal, neuroepithelial origin that provide for homeostasis
and defense of the central nervous system (CNS). Astrocytes are highly heterogeneous in …

Central nervous system (CNS) innate immunity plays essential roles in infections,
neurodegenerative diseases, and brain or spinal cord injuries. Astrocytes and microglia are …

The immune system is a very diverse system of the host that evolved during evolution to
cope with various pathogens present in the vicinity of environmental surroundings inhabited …

Stroke is the second leading cause of global death and is characterized by high rates of
mortality and disability. Oxidative stress is accompanied by other pathological processes …

Activation of the peripheral immune system elicits a coordinated response from the central
nervous system. Key to this immune to brain communication is that glia, microglia, and …

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents a major cause of death and disability in developed
countries. Brain injuries are highly heterogeneous and can also trigger other neurological …

Alpha‐synucleinopathies (ASP) are neurodegenerative disorders, characterized by
accumulation of misfolded α‐synuclein, selective neuronal loss, and extensive gliosis. It is …

Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase (IDO) is the first and rate limiting catabolic enzyme in the
degradation pathway of the essential amino acid tryptophan. By cleaving the aromatic indole …

Neuroinflammation constitutes a fundamental process involved in the progression of several
neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease …

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is a disabling autoimmune astrocytopathy characterized by
typically severe and recurrent attacks of optic neuritis and longitudinally extensive myelitis …