Abstract Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 belongs to the TLR family of receptors inducing pro-
inflammatory responses to invading pathogens. TLR4 is activated by lipopolysaccharide …

Damage‐associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) include endogenous intracellular
molecules released by activated or necrotic cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules …

The transcription factors interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and NF-κB are required for the
expression of many genes involved in the innate immune response. Viral infection, or the …

There is a growing interest in the targeting of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) for the prevention
and treatment of cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and systemic …

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a common disease entity in critical care
medicine and is still associated with a high mortality. Because of the heterogeneous …

An understanding of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) signal transduction is a key goal in the effort
to provide a molecular basis for the lethal effect of LPS during septic shock and point the …

Microbial DNA sequences containing unmethylated CpG dinucleotides activate Toll-like
receptor 9 (TLR9). We have found that TLR9 is localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) …

Toll–IL-1–resistance (TIR) domain–containing adaptor-inducing IFN-β (TRIF)–related
adaptor molecule (TRAM) is the fourth TIR domain–containing adaptor protein to be …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the major cell-surface initiators of inflammatory responses to
pathogens. They bind a wide variety of pathogenic substances through their ectodomains …

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), originally described as a DNA-binding protein, can also
be released extracellularly and functions as a late mediator of inflammatory responses …