As the proverbial creatures of habit, people tend to repeat the same behaviors in recurring
contexts. This review characterizes habits in terms of their cognitive, motivational, and …

The idea that memory is not a single mental faculty has a long and interesting history but
became a topic of experimental and biologic inquiry only in the mid-20th century. It is now …

Diverse intellectual functions including memory are some important aspects of cognition.
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter of the catecholamine family, which contributes to the …

Protons dissociated from organic acids in cells are partly buffered. If not, they are transported
to the extracellular fluid through the plasma membrane and buffered in circulation or …

The view that anatomically distinct memory systems differentially contribute to the
development of drug addiction and relapse has received extensive support. The present …

Understanding habits at a biological level requires a combination of behavioral observations
and measures of ongoing neural activity. Theoretical frameworks as well as definitions of …

Memory consolidation is promoted by sleep. However, there is also evidence for
consolidation into long-term memory during wakefulness via processes that preferentially …

Addiction is characterized by compulsive drug use despite negative consequences. Here we
review studies that indicate that compulsive drug use, and in particular punishment …

The pH of body fluids is one the most important key factors regulating various cell function
such as enzyme activity and protein-protein interaction via modification of its binding affinity …

The present article provides a historical review of the place and response learning plus-
maze tasks with a focus on the behavioral and neurobiological findings. The article begins …