Hundreds of coral paleoclimate records have been developed over the past several
decades, significantly extending the instrumental record and improving our understanding of …

Molluscs are grand masters in the fabrication of shells, because these are composed of the
largest variety of microstructures found among invertebrates. Molluscan microstructures are …

Ocean acidification (OA) is considered an important threat to coral reef ecosystems, because
it reduces the availability of carbonate ions that reef-building corals need to produce their …

Modern coral taxonomy has begun to resolve many long-standing problems in traditional
systematics stemming from its reliance on skeletal macromorphology. By integrating …

Rare earth element geochemistry in carbonate rocks is utilized increasingly for studying both
modern oceans and palaeoceanography, with additional applications for investigating water …

Hard, or stony, corals make rocks that can, on geological time scales, lead to the formation of
massive reefs in shallow tropical and subtropical seas. In both historical and contemporary …

Threats leading to a reduction in coral populations are apparent worldwide. Several different
approaches have been tested to accelerate the adaptation of corals to a changing climate …

Coral reefs maintain extraordinary biodiversity and provide protection from tsunamis and
storm surge, but inshore coral reef health is degrading in many regions due to deteriorating …

Calcium carbonate skeletons of scleractinian corals amplify light availability to their algal
symbionts by diffuse scattering, optimizing photosynthetic energy acquisition. However, the …

Coral reefs are the largest landforms built by plants and animals. Their study therefore
incorporates a wide range of disciplines. This encyclopedia approaches coral reefs from an …