BACKGROUND Evolution is a strongly historical process, and evolutionary biology is a field
that combines history and science. How the historical nature of evolution affects the …

Parallel evolution across replicate populations has provided evolutionary biologists with
iconic examples of adaptation. When multiple populations colonize seemingly similar …

Evolution of RNA viruses occurs through disequilibria of collections of closely related mutant
spectra or mutant clouds termed viral quasispecies. Here we review the origin of the …

Epistatic interactions between mutations can make evolutionary trajectories contingent on
the chance occurrence of initial mutations. We used experimental evolution in …

A large number of medically important viruses, including HIV, hepatitis C virus, and
influenza, have RNA genomes. These viruses replicate with extremely high mutation rates …

Epistatic interactions between mutations play a prominent role in evolutionary theories.
Many studies have found that epistasis is widespread, but they have rarely considered …

In experimental evolution, laboratory-controlled conditions select for the adaptation of
species, which can be monitored in real time. Despite the current popularity of such …

RNA viruses exist as genetically diverse populations. It is thought that diversity and genetic
structure of viral populations determine the rapid adaptation observed in RNA viruses and …

Microorganisms have been mutating and evolving on Earth for billions of years. Now, a field
of research has developed around the idea of using microorganisms to study evolution in …

Drug therapy has a crucial role in the treatment of viral, bacterial, fungal and protozoan
infections, as well as the control of human cancer. The success of therapy is being …