Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) combine methods, approaches, and concepts derived from
neurophysiology, computer science, and engineering in an effort to establish real-time …

Learning the value of stimuli and actions from others—social learning—adaptively
contributes to individual survival and plays a key role in cultural evolution. We review …

Understanding complex systems such as the human brain requires characterization of the
system's architecture across multiple levels of organization–from neurons, to local circuits, to …

Rewards are crucial objects that induce learning, approach behavior, choices, and
emotions. Whereas emotions are difficult to investigate in animals, the learning function is …

The human brain contains approximately 60 billion cerebellar granule cells, which
outnumber all other brain neurons combined. Classical theories posit that a large, diverse …

Rhythmic gene expression is found throughout the central nervous system. This harmonized
regulation can be dependent on-and independent of-the master regulator of biological …

In recent years, an explosion of neuroimaging studies has examined cognitive reappraisal,
an emotion regulation strategy that involves changing the way one thinks about a stimulus in …

Since the original characterization of the ventral visual pathway, our knowledge of its
neuroanatomy, functional properties, and extrinsic targets has grown considerably. Here we …

Although cells in many brain regions respond to reward, the cortical-basal ganglia circuit is
at the heart of the reward system. The key structures in this network are the anterior …

Reward contains separable psychological components of learning, incentive motivation and
pleasure. Most computational models have focused only on the learning component of …