The immune system is composed of two subsystems—the innate immune system and the
adaptive immune system. The innate immune system is the first to respond to pathogens and …

Abstract Current US Food and Drug Administration-approved chimeric antigen receptor
(CAR) T cells harbor the T cell receptor (TCR)-derived ζ chain as an intracellular activation …

AT cell receptor (TCR) mediates antigen-induced signaling through its associated CD3ε, δ,
γ, and ζ, but the contributions of different CD3 chains remain elusive. Using quantitative …

Cell-mediated cytotoxicity is one of the major mechanisms by which vertebrates control
intracellular pathogens. Two cell types are the main players in this immune response …

Plastics are widely diffused in the oceans and their ingestion by marine organisms is raising
concern for potentially adverse effects. The risk of harmful interactions with marine plastic …

The absence of germinal centers (GCs) in cartilaginous fishes lies at odds with data showing
that nurse sharks can produce robust antigen-specific responses and affinity mature their B …

Interferons orchestrate host antiviral responses in jawed vertebrates. They are categorized
into three classes; IFN1 and IFN3 are the primary antiviral cytokine lineages, while IFN2 …

Lymphocytes of vertebrate adaptive immune systems acquired the capability to assemble,
from split genes in the germline, billions of functional antigen receptors,–. These receptors …

Abstract Interleukin (IL) 4 and 13 are signature cytokines orchestrating Th2 immune
response. Teleost fish have two homologs, termed IL-4/13A and IL-4/13B, and have been …

Background The cartilaginous fishes diverged from other jawed vertebrates~ 450 million
years ago (mya). Despite this key evolutionary position, the only high-quality cartilaginous …