OBJECTIVE: After prolonged opioid exposure, children develop opioid-induced
hyperalgesia, tolerance, and withdrawal. Strategies for prevention and management should …

Peroxynitrite (PN; ONOO−) and its reactive oxygen precursor superoxide (SO; O2•−) are
critically important in the development of pain of several etiologies including pain associated …

This paper is the 28th consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning
the endogenous opioid system, now spanning over a quarter-century of research. It …

It is recently become clear that activated immune cells and immune-like glial cells can
dramatically alter neuronal function. By increasing neuronal excitability, these non-neuronal …

Chronic pain is a debilitating clinical condition associated with a variety of disease entities
including diabetic neuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia, low back pathology, fibromyalgia, and …

Pain is the primary reason that people seek medical care. At present, chronic unremitting
pain is the third greatest health problem after heart disease and cancer. Chronic pain is an …

Key points• Activation of N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) receptors (NMDARs) is a crucial
mechanism underlying the development and maintenance of pain.• Little is known about the …

The glial function in morphine tolerance has been explored, but its mechanisms remain
unclear. Our previous study has showed that microglia-expressed P2X7 receptors (P2X7R) …

Tolerance to morphine-induced analgesia is an intractable phenomenon, often hindering its
prolonged applications in the clinics. The enhanced pronociceptive actions of spinal pain …

Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) in the spinal cord is involved in pro-inflammatory cytokine-
mediated pain facilitation. However, the role of NF-κB activation in chronic morphine …