The Earth as a planetary system has experienced significant change since its formation c.
4.54 Gyr ago. Some of these changes have been gradual, such as secular cooling of the …

Earth's magnetic field is generated by fluid motions in the outer core. This geodynamo has
operated for over 3.4 billion years. However, the mechanism that has sustained the …

Reconstructing Earth history during the Hadean defies the traditional rock-based approach
in geology. Given the extremely limited locality of Hadean zircons, some indirect approach …

We review the origin and evolution of the atmospheres of Earth, Venus and Mars from the
time when their accreting bodies were released from the protoplanetary disk a few million …

Estimates of the time at which life arose on Earth make use of two types of evidence. First,
astrophysical and geophysical studies provide a timescale for the formation of Earth and the …

Context. A terrestrial planet is molten during formation and may remain molten due to
intense insolation or tidal forces. Observations favour the detection and characterisation of …

The viscosity of magma plays a crucial role in the dynamics of the Earth: from the
crystallization of a magma ocean during its initial stages to modern-day volcanic processes …

Planetary atmospheres are commonly thought to result from the efficient outgassing of
cooling magma oceans. During this stage, vigorous convective motions in the molten interior …

The presence of exposed land on the early Earth is a prerequisite for a certain type of
prebiotic chemical evolution in which the oscillating activity of water, driven by short-term …

The theory of plate tectonics is widely accepted by scientists and provides a robust
framework with which to describe and predict the behavior of Earth's rigid outer shell–the …