Ongoing research has revealed that the existence of cancer stem cells (CSCs) is one of the
biggest obstacles in the current cancer therapy. CSCs make an influential function in tumor …

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive primary brain tumor in adults, with a poor
prognosis, despite surgical resection combined with radio-and chemotherapy. The major …

Background Therapeutic targeting of the immune checkpoints cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-
associated molecule-4 (CTLA-4) and PD-1/PD-L1 has demonstrated tumor regression in …

Cancer stem cells (CSCs), known also as tumor-initiating cells, are quiescent, pluripotent,
self-renewing neoplastic cells that were first identified in hematologic tumors and soon after …

Tumor-infiltrating immune cells can promote chemoresistance and metastatic spread in
aggressive tumors. Consequently, the type and quality of immune responses present in the …

Tumor microenvironment (TME) takes critical roles in tumor resistance to immune checkpoint
inhibitors (ICIs) including anti-programmed death-1 (PD-1) or anti-programmed death-ligand …

Microglia—resident myeloid-lineage cells in the brain and the spinal cord parenchyma—
function in the maintenance of normal tissue homeostasis. Microglia also act as sentinels of …

Tissues with defined cellular hierarchies in development and homeostasis give rise to
tumors with cellular hierarchies, suggesting that tumors recapitulate specific tissues and …

Purpose: Gliomas are known to induce local and systemic immunosuppression, inhibiting T-
cell–mediated cytotoxic responses to tumor growth. Tumor-associated macrophages are a …

Macrophages (MΦs)/microglia that constitute the dominant tumor-infiltrating immune cells in
glioblastoma are recruited by tumor-secreted factors and are induced to become …