Abstract The Miocene epoch (23.03–5.33 Ma) was a time interval of global warmth, relative
to today. Continental configurations and mountain topography transitioned toward modern …

The largest tectonic relief breaking the Earth's surface (13 km vertically) is at the subduction
margin of the Andes, which generates routinely megathrust earthquakes (Mw> 8.5) and …

Abstract Theory and climate modelling suggest that the sensitivity of Earth's climate to
changes in radiative forcing could depend on the background climate. However …

About five to four million years ago, in the early Pliocene epoch, Earth had a warm,
temperate climate. The gradual cooling that followed led to the establishment of modern …

About 3 million years ago (Ma), the I sthmus of P anama joined the A mericas, forming a land
bridge over which inhabitants of each A merica invaded the other—the G reat A merican B …

The appearance of permanent El Niño–like conditions prior to 3 million years ago is founded
on sea-surface temperature (SST) reconstructions that show invariant Pacific warm pool …

Climate and environments of the mid-Pliocene warm period (3.264 to 3.025 Ma) have been
extensively studied. Whilst numerical models have shed light on the nature of climate at the …

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the strongest mode of interannual climate variability
in the current climate, influencing ecosystems, agriculture, and weather systems across the …

The Pliocene climate is globally warm and characterised by high atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentrations, yet the terrestrial and marine scientific communities have gathered …

Tropical cyclones (also known as hurricanes and typhoons) are now believed to be an
important component of the Earth's climate system,,. In particular, by vigorously mixing the …