The question,“Why should prey advertise their presence to predators using warning
coloration?” has been asked for over 150 years. It is now widely acknowledged that …

The evolution of defensive traits and strategies depends on the intensity of selection
imposed by natural enemies and on the fitness costs of defenses against these enemies. We …

Poison dart frogs provide classic examples of warning signals: potent toxins signaled by
distinctive, conspicuous coloration. We show that, counterintuitively, the bright yellow and …

Contrary to expectations regarding efficient predator education mediated by lack of
ambiguity and enhanced prey recognition, aposematic signals often show considerable …

Many animals have bright colours to warn predators that they have defences and are not
worth attacking. However, it remains unclear whether the strength of warning colours reliably …

Prey animals typically try to avoid being detected and/or advertise to would-be predators that
they should be avoided. Both anti-predator strategies primarily rely on colour to succeed, but …

Chemical defenses are frequently accompanied by salient color patterns actively avoided by
predators, a phenomenon referred to as aposematism. However, the production of both …

Biologists have reported on the chemical defences and the phenetic similarity of net-winged
beetles (Coleoptera: Lycidae) and their co-mimics. Nevertheless, our knowledge has …

An apparent and common feature of aposematic patterns is that they contain a high level of
achromatic (luminance) contrast, for example, many warning signals combine black spots …

Predation is expected to promote uniformity in the warning coloration of defended prey, but
also mimicry convergence between aposematic species. Despite selection constraining both …