Addiction is commonly identified with habitual nonmedical self-administration of drugs. It is
usually defined by characteristics of intoxication or by characteristics of withdrawal …

This article reviews the behavioral neuroscience of extinction, the phenomenon in which a
behavior that has been acquired through Pavlovian or instrumental (operant) learning …

Addiction is a disease in which, after a period of recreational use, a subset of individuals
develops compulsive use that does not stop even in light of major negative consequences …

Addiction is a chronic relapsing disorder characterized by the loss of control over drug
intake, high motivation to obtain the drug, and a persistent craving for the drug …

Rare earth elements have seen a rise in demand in recent years due to their distinctive
properties and diverse applications. Rare earth-based nanomaterials can be synthesized …

Dopamine (DA) transmission is governed by processes that regulate release from axonal
boutons in the forebrain and the somatodendritic compartment in midbrain, and by …

Dopamine is well recognized as a neurotransmitter in the brain, and regulates critical
functions in a variety of peripheral systems. Growing research has also shown that …

Midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons are proposed to signal reward prediction error (RPE), a
fundamental parameter in associative learning models. This RPE hypothesis provides a …

Drugs of abuse elevate dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and alter
transcriptional programs believed to promote long-lasting synaptic and behavioral …

Anatomical and functional refinements of the meso-limbic dopamine system of the rat are
discussed. Present experiments suggest that dopaminergic neurons localized in the …