Rewards are crucial objects that induce learning, approach behavior, choices, and
emotions. Whereas emotions are difficult to investigate in animals, the learning function is …

The basal ganglia are subcortical nuclei controlling voluntary actions and have been
implicated in Parkinson's disease (PD). The prevailing model of basal ganglia function …

Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are retrograde neuromodulators with important functions in a
wide range of physiological processes, but their in vivo dynamics remain largely …

Addiction is a chronic relapsing disorder characterized by the loss of control over drug
intake, high motivation to obtain the drug, and a persistent craving for the drug …

Exercise interventions in individuals with Parkinson's disease incorporate goal-based motor
skill training to engage cognitive circuitry important in motor learning. With this exercise …

Among the many neuromodulators used by the mammalian brain to regulate circuit function
and plasticity, dopamine (DA) stands out as one of the most behaviorally powerful …

Recent work has advanced our knowledge of phasic dopamine reward prediction error
signals. The error signal is bidirectional, reflects well the higher order prediction error …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by a progressive
loss of dopaminergic neurons from the nigrostriatal pathway, formation of Lewy bodies, and …

The basal ganglia are a chain of subcortical nuclei that facilitate action selection. Two striatal
projection systems—so-called direct and indirect pathways—form the functional backbone of …

Neural circuits of the basal ganglia are critical for motor planning and action selection,,. Two
parallel basal ganglia pathways have been described, and have been proposed to exert …