Almost all bacteria and many archaea contain genes whose expression inhibits cell growth
and may lead to cell death when overproduced, reminiscent of apoptotic genes in higher …

Toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic elements composed of a toxin gene and its
cognate antitoxin. The toxins of all known TA systems are proteins while the antitoxins are …

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules are ubiquitous gene loci among bacteria and are comprised of
a toxin part and its cognate antitoxin part. Under normal physiological conditions, antitoxin …

One of the simplest classes of genes involved in programmed death is that containing the
toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems of prokaryotes. These systems are composed of an intracellular …

Genes for toxin-antitoxin (TA) complexes are widespread in prokaryote genomes, and
species frequently possess tens of plasmid and chromosomal TA loci. The complexes are …

Toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems are small genetic elements found on plasmids or
chromosomes of countless bacteria, archaea, and possibly also unicellular fungi. Under …

In their initial stages of discovery, prokaryotic toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems were confined to
bacterial plasmids where they function to mediate the maintenance and stability of usually …

Bacterial toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems have received increasing attention for their diverse
identities, structures, and functional implications in cell cycle arrest and survival against …

Toxin–antitoxin (TA) systems are unique modules that effect plasmid stabilization via post-
segregational killing of the bacterial host. The genes encoding TA systems also exist on …

Genes for toxin-antitoxin (TA) complexes are widely disseminated in bacteria, including in
pathogenic and antibiotic resistant species. The toxins are liberated from association with …