Melatonin, more commonly known as the sleep hormone, is mainly secreted by the pineal
gland in dark conditions and regulates the circadian rhythm of the organism. Its intrinsic …

Pain and depression are two highly prevalent and deleterious disorders with significant
socioeconomic impact to society. Clinical observations have long recognized the co …

This paper reviews recent work on the biological underpinnings of clinical depression
emphasizing the crucial role of immunoinflammatory and oxidative and nitrosative stress …

Depending on its nature, duration, and intensity, stress can exert potent and bidirectional
modulatory effects on pain, either reducing pain (stress-induced analgesia) or exacerbating …

Melatonin is a pleiotropic hormone synthesized and secreted mainly by the pineal gland in
vertebrates. Melatonin is an endogenous regulator of circadian and seasonal rhythms …

Peripheral and central sensitizations of the trigeminal nervous system are the main
mechanisms to promote the development and maintenance of chronic orofacial pain …

Affective disorders and cognitive deficits are common comorbidities of chronic pain in the
clinical setting, which severely affect the quality of life of pain patients and impose a great …

The spinal N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), particularly their subtypes NR2A and
NR2B, plays pivotal roles in neuropathic and inflammatory pain. However, the roles of NR2A …

Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) has gained growing interest as a
non-invasive and non-pharmacologic treatment option in various neurological and …

Morphine is a potent analgesic agent used to control acute or chronic pain. Chronic
administration of morphine results in analgesic tolerance, hyperalgesia, and other side …