Akt/PKB (protein kinase B) both regulates and is regulated by the TSC (tuberous sclerosis
complex) 1–TSC2 complex. Downstream of PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase), Akt …

Carbohydrate metabolism is essential for cellular energy balance as well as for the
biosynthesis of new cellular building blocks. As animal nutrient intake displays temporal …

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), produced during various electron transfer reactions in vivo,
are generally considered to be deleterious to cells. In the mammalian haematopoietic …

Sestrins are conserved proteins that accumulate in cells exposed to stress, potentiate
adenosine monophosphate–activated protein kinase (AMPK), and inhibit activation of target …

Skeletal muscle tissue engineering (SMTE) aims to repair or regenerate defective skeletal
muscle tissue lost by traumatic injury, tumor ablation, or muscular disease. However, two …

The insulin signalling pathway is highly conserved from mammals to Drosophila. Insulin
signalling in the fly, as in mammals, regulates a number of physiological functions, including …

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract senses the ingestion of food and responds by signaling to the
brain to promote satiation and satiety. Representing an important part of the gut–brain axis …

Low endogenous testosterone production, known as hypogonadism is commonly
associated with conditions inducing muscle wasting. Akt signaling can control skeletal …

Nutrition is a key regulator of tissue growth. In animals, nutritional status is monitored and
signaled at both the cellular and systemic levels. The main mediator of cellular nutrient …

Estrogens and androgens influence the growth and maintenance of bones and muscles and
are responsible for their sexual dimorphism. A decline in their circulating levels leads to loss …