Since the introduction of calcium imaging to monitor neuronal activity with single-cell
resolution, optical imaging methods have revolutionized neuroscience by enabling …

Calcium ions generate versatile intracellular signals that control key functions in all types of
neurons. Imaging calcium in neurons is particularly important because calcium signals exert …

Genetically-encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) facilitate imaging activity of genetically
defined neuronal populations in vivo. The high intracellular GECI concentrations required for …

Astrocyte Ca2+ signalling has been proposed to link neuronal information in different spatial–
temporal dimensions to achieve a higher level of brain integration. However, some …

Hubel and Wiesel began the modern study of development and plasticity of primary visual
cortex (V1), discovering response properties of cortical neurons that distinguished them from …

Genetically encoded calcium indicators (GECIs) can be used to image activity in defined
neuronal populations. However, current GECIs produce inferior signals compared to …

With few exceptions biological tissues strongly scatter light, making high-resolution deep
imaging impossible for traditional—including confocal—fluorescence microscopy. Nonlinear …

The brain is complex and dynamic. The spatial scales of interest to the neurobiologist range
from individual synapses (∼ 1 μm) to neural circuits (centimeters); the timescales range from …

Fluorescent calcium indicator proteins, such as GCaMP3, allow imaging of activity in
genetically defined neuronal populations. GCaMP3 can be expressed using various gene …

Calcium handling by mitochondria is a key feature in cell life. It is involved in energy
production for cell activity, in buffering and shaping cytosolic calcium rises and also in …