Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a common cause of liver disease globally, with a
disproportionately high burden in South-East Asia. Vaccines and nucleoside or nucleotide …

Monocytes are considered to be precursor cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system, and
macrophages are one of the leading members of this cellular system. Macrophages play …

During hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, the presence of HBV-specific antibody producing B
cells and functional HBV-specific T cells (with helper or cytotoxic effects) ultimately …

The antiviral innate immunity is the first line of host defense against virus infections. In
mammalian cells, viral infections initiate the expression of interferons (IFNs) in the host that …

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) can replicate within hepatocytes without causing direct cell damage.
The host immune response is, therefore, not only essential to control the spread of virus …

The host immune system has multiple innate immune receptors that can identify, distinguish
and react to viral infections. In innate immune response, the host recognizes pathogen …

Influenza A virus (IAV) remains a major public health threat in the world, as indicated by the
severe pneumonia caused by its infection annually. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) involved excessive …

Over the past decade, a family of host proteins known as s uppressors ofc ytokine s ignaling
(SOCS) have emerged as frequent targets of viral exploitation. Under physiologic …

Cell–cell communication depends on cytokine and growth factor network. Bound to their
receptors on the surface of target cell, these glycoproteins initiate a range of intracellular …

Toll‐like receptor (TLR) signaling pathways are strictly coordinated by several mechanisms
to regulate adequate innate immune responses. Recent lines of evidence indicate that the …