Chronic pain is maintained in part by central sensitization, a phenomenon of synaptic
plasticity, and increased neuronal responsiveness in central pain pathways after painful …

The previous decade has seen a rapid increase in microglial studies on pain, with a unique
focus on microgliosis in the spinal cord after nerve injury and neuropathic pain. Numerous …

Abstract Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), a member of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family, is
involved in innate immunity and mediates inflammatory responses by recognizing …

Conspectus Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the “gatekeepers” of the immune system in
humans and other animals to protect the host from invading bacteria, viruses, and other …

Alcohol consumption and stress increase brain levels of known innate immune signaling
molecules. Microglia, the innate immune cells of the brain, and neurons respond to alcohol …

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a widespread disease with limited treatment options.
Targeting the neuroimmune system is a new avenue for developing or repurposing effective …

Drugs of abuse cause persistent alterations in synaptic plasticity that may underlie addiction
behaviors. Evidence suggests glial cells have an essential and underappreciated role in the …

One of the fundamental mechanisms whereby the innate immune system coordinates
inflammatory signal transduction is through Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which function to …

Naltrexone and naloxone are classical opioid antagonists. In substantially lower than
standard doses, they exert different pharmacodynamics. Low-dose naltrexone (LDN) …

Chronic inflammatory diseases are complex to treat and have an impact on a large number
of patients. Due to the difficulty of treating these diseases and the great impact on quality of …