Since the early 1980s, phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) has been an attractive target for the
treatment of inflammation-based diseases. Several scientific advancements, by both …

The capacity to predict future events permits a creature to detect, model, and manipulate the
causal structure of its interactions with its environment. Behavioral experiments suggest that …

There is evidence that treatment with an antibody to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha)
improves an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS) and is beneficial in two systemic …

Microglial cells are believed to play an active role in brain inflammatory, immune and
degenerative processes. Depending on the magnitude of microglial reaction, on the type of …

The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) is a small, nonendangered New World primate
that is native to Brazil and has been used extensively in biomedical research. Historically the …

Phosphodiesterases (PDE) are a diverse family of enzymes (11 isoforms so far identified)
responsible for the degradation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic …

Adoptive transfer experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (AT-EAE), a disease
resembling multiple sclerosis, is induced in rats by myelin basic protein (MBP)-activated …

Perivascular accumulation of mononuclear cells (MNCs) in the central nervous system
(CNS) and high levels of myelin autoantigen‐reactive T cells in blood and further enriched in …

Proinflammatory cytokines, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin
(IL)-6, have multiple effects in the central nervous system (CNS) not strictly cytotoxic being …

Cells of the innate immune system secrete cytokines early in immune responses that guide
maturing T helper (Th) cells along appropriate lineages. This study investigates the role of …