The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and its end product cortisol are essential for
an adequate response to stress. Considering the role of stress as a risk factor for psychiatric …

Objective: Biomarkers are defined as anatomical, biochemical or physiological traits that are
specific to certain disorders or syndromes. The objective of this paper is to summarise the …

Questions of how altered functioning of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis
contribute to the development and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) …

This work was supported by National Institute of Health (NIH) grants MH-541380, MH-
77083, MH-69056, MH-58922, MH-42088, MH071537, and DA-019624; the Doris Duke …

Traditional theories propose that testosterone should increase dominance and other status-
seeking behaviors, but empirical support has been inconsistent. The present research tested …

Approach action tendencies toward positive stimuli and avoidance tendencies from negative
stimuli are widely seen to foster survival. Many studies have shown that approach and …

Anxious individuals consistently fail in controlling emotional behavior, leading to excessive
avoidance, a trait that prevents learning through exposure. Although the origin of this failure …

Stress encompasses profound psychological and physiological changes that are observable
on all levels, from cellular mechanisms, humoral changes, and brain activation to subjective …

Stress is one of the most significant health problems in modern societies and the 21st
century. This explains a pressing need for investigations into the biological pathways linking …

Freezing is a common defensive response in animals threatened by predators. It is
characterized by reduced body motion and decreased heart rate (bradycardia). However …