Adjuvants are indispensable components of vaccines. Despite being widely used in
vaccines, their action mechanisms are not yet clear. With a greater understanding of the …

Synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) containing unmethylated CpG motifs trigger cells
that express Toll-like receptor 9 (including human plasmacytoid dendritic cells and B cells) …

Synthetic oligonucleotides (ODN) that express unmethylated “CpG motifs” trigger cells that
express Toll-like receptor 9. In humans this includes plasmacytoid dendritic cells and B cells …

Innate immunity confers an immediate nonspecific mechanism of microbial recognition
through germ line-encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Of these, Toll-like …

Our improved understanding of how innate immune responses can be initiated and how
they can shape adaptive B‐and T‐cell responses is having a significant impact on vaccine …

CpG Oligonucleotides (ODN) are immunomodulatory synthetic oligonucleotides specifically
designed to stimulate Toll-like receptor 9. TLR9 is expressed on human plasmacytoid …

Protection against mucosally transmitted infections probably requires immunity at the site of
pathogen entry 1, yet there are no mucosal adjuvant formulations licensed for human use …

Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligation activates both the innate and adaptive immune systems, and
plays an important role in antiviral and anti-tumor immunity. Therefore, a significant amount …

Studies addressing immunosenescence in the immune system have expanded to focus on
the innate as well as the adaptive responses. In particular, aging results in alterations in the …

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of pattern recognition receptors and part of the first
line of defense against invading microbes. In humans, we know of 10 different TLRs, which …