Here we argue functional neuroanatomy for posture-gait control. Multi-sensory information
such as somatosensory, visual and vestibular sensation act on various areas of the brain so …

The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) has long been considered an interface between the
basal ganglia and motor systems, and its ability to regulate arousal states puts the PPN in a …

Freezing of gait (FOG) is a common and debilitating, but largely mysterious, symptom of
Parkinson disease. In this review, we will discuss the cerebral substrate of FOG focusing on …

Dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) receive cholinergic innervation from
brainstem structures that are associated with either movement or reward. Whereas …

Degeneration of substantia nigra (SN) dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons is responsible for
the core motor deficits of Parkinson's disease (PD). These neurons are autonomous …

Cholinergic neurons comprise a small population of cells in the striatum but have
fundamental roles in fine tuning brain function, and in the etiology of neurological and …

The mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) serves as an interface between higher-order
motor systems and lower motor neurons. The excitatory module of the MLR is composed of …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, disabling
millions worldwide. Despite the imperative PD poses, at present, there is no cure or means …

The mesencephalic locomotor region (MLR) controls locomotion in vertebrates. In humans
with Parkinson disease, locomotor deficits are increasingly associated with decreased …

We present data from animal studies showing that the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus—
conserved through evolution, compartmentalized, and with a complex pattern of inputs and …