Objective We conducted literature reviews to uncover differential effects of sex on sequelae
from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and on long COVID syndrome. Methods Two …

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has increased awareness about sex-specific differences
in immunity and outcomes following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Strong evidence of a male bias …

Females and males differ in the energy consumption and nutritional requirements which are
based on the interactions between environmental factors and sex hormones (1). The studies …

Sexual dimorphisms account for differences in clinical manifestations or incidence of
infectious or autoimmune diseases and malignancy between females and males. Females …

Males and females differ in their immunological responses to foreign and self-antigens and
show distinctions in innate and adaptive immune responses. Certain immunological sex …

Females typically develop higher antibody responses and experience more adverse
reactions following vaccination than males. These differences are observed in response to …

Abstract The 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused by the virus severe
acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has created an unprecedented …

Sex-based disparities in immune responses are well known phenomena. The two most
important factors accounting for the sex-bias in immunity are genetics and sex hormones …

Epidemiological studies and clinical observations show evidence of sexual dimorphism in
infectious diseases. Women are at less risk than men when it comes to developing most …

New attention to sexual dimorphism in normal mammalian physiology and disease has
uncovered a previously unappreciated breadth of mechanisms by which females and males …