Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is a neuropeptide with diverse physiological
functions. Its two isoforms (α and β) are widely expressed throughout the body in sensory …

Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) catalyze the conversion of ATP to the ubiquitous second
messenger cAMP. Mammals possess nine isoforms of transmembrane ACs, dubbed AC1–9 …

Multiple sclerosis (MS) represents the most common acquired demyelinating disorder of the
central nervous system (CNS). Its pathogenesis, in parallel with the well-established role of …

Cumulative animal and human studies have consistently demonstrated that two major
cortical regions in the brain, namely the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and insular cortex …

The parabrachial nucleus (PB) is composed of glutamatergic neurons at the midbrain–
hindbrain junction. These neurons form many subpopulations, one of which expresses …

Background Vestibular symptoms are frequently reported in patients with chronic migraine
(CM). However, whether vestibular symptoms arise through overlapping neurobiology of …

Background Prior clinical studies suggest a shared mechanism between vestibular
symptoms and migraine headache. However, the specific neuroanatomical substrate …

Migraine is the second most prevalent disorder in the world; yet, its underlying mechanisms
are still poorly understood. Cumulative studies have revealed pivotal roles of cerebral cortex …

Chronic pain is a major health problem and the effective treatment for chronic pain is still
lacking. The recent crisis created by the overuse of opioids for pain treatment has clearly …

Recent studies using different experimental approaches demonstrate that silent synapses
may exist in the adult cortex including the sensory cortex and anterior cingulate cortex …