Estrogens and androgens influence the growth and maintenance of the mammalian
skeleton and are responsible for its sexual dimorphism. Estrogen deficiency at menopause …

Bone is a multi-skilled tissue, protecting major organs, regulating calcium phosphate
balance and producing hormones. Its development during childhood determines height and …

Estrogens are important for bone metabolism via a variety of mechanisms in osteoblasts,
osteocytes, osteoclasts, immune cells and other cells to maintain bone mineral density …

Sex steroids are chief regulators of gender differences in the skeleton, and male gender is
one of the strongest protective factors against osteoporotic fractures. This advantage in bone …

Adaptation of bone to mechanical stresses normally produces a bone architecture that
combines a proper resistance against failure with a minimal use of material. This adaptive …

Mechanical loading is the primary functional determinant of bone mass and architecture,
and osteocytes play a key role in translating mechanical signals into (re) modelling …

Osteocytes secrete paracrine factors that regulate the balance between bone formation and
destruction. Among these molecules, sclerostin (encoded by the gene SOST) inhibits …

The skeleton has the ability to perfectly adapt to external forces of the operating
environment, by altering its morphology and metabolism in order to meet different needs …

Air pollution is the second most important risk factor associated with noncommunicable
diseases after smoking. The effects of pollution on health are commonly attributable to …

A healthy skeleton depends on a continuous renewal and maintenance of the bone tissue.
The process of bone remodeling is highly controlled and consists of a fine-tuned balance …