Antarctica and the surrounding Southern Ocean are facing complex environmental change.
Their native biota has adapted to the region's extreme conditions over many millions of …

The deep sea encompasses the largest ecosystems on Earth. Although poorly known, deep
seafloor ecosystems provide services that are vitally important to the entire ocean and …

This chapter assesses the state of physical, biological and social knowledge concerning the
Arctic and Antarctic ocean and cryosphere, how they are affected by climate change, and …

The Antarctic is considered to be a pristine environment relative to other regions of the Earth,
but it is increasingly vulnerable to invasions by marine, freshwater and terrestrial non‐native …

Important findings from the second decade of the 21st century on the impact of
environmental change on biological processes in the Antarctic were synthesised by 26 …

In recent decades, the land-ocean aquatic continuum, commonly defined as the interface, or
transition zone, between terrestrial ecosystems and the open ocean, has undergone …

Animals living in the Southern Ocean have evolved in a singular environment. It shares
many of its attributes with the high Arctic, namely low, stable temperatures, the pervading …

Background As the global community actively works to keep temperatures from rising
beyond 1.5° C, predicting greenhouse gases (GHGs) by how they warm the planet—and not …

This chapter assesses the state of physical, biological and social knowledge concerning the
Arctic and Antarctic ocean and cryosphere, how they are affected by climate change, and …

Global warming in ocean ecosystems alters temperature, acidification, oxygen content,
circulation, stratification, and nutrient inputs. Microorganisms play a dominant role in global …