Parkinson disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects peripheral
organs as well as the central nervous system and involves a fundamental role of …

The neurotransmitter dopamine is a key factor in central nervous system (CNS) function,
regulating many processes including reward, movement, and cognition. Dopamine also …

This review provides an overview of the importance of microbiota in the regulation of gut–
brain communication in immune-related neurological disorders. The gastrointestinal (GI) …

In Parkinson's disease (PD), neurotoxic microglia, Th1 cells, and Th17 cells are
overactivated. Overactivation of these immune cells exacerbates the disease process and …

Immune cells rely on cell-cell communication to specify and fine-tune their responses. They
express an extensive network of cell communication modes, including a vast repertoire of …

Dopamine is well recognized as a neurotransmitter in the brain, and regulates critical
functions in a variety of peripheral systems. Growing research has also shown that …

Inflammation is an integral part of the body's physiological repair mechanism, unless it
remains unresolved and becomes pathological, as evident in the progressive nature of …

There is an important relationship between probiotics, psychobiotics and cognitive and
behavioral processes, which include neurological, metabolic, hormonal and immunological …

It has been known for decades that the immune system has a tremendous impact on
behavior. Most work has described the negative role of immune cells on the central nervous …

Adenosine is a neuromodulator that operates via the most abundant inhibitory adenosine A
1 receptors (A 1 Rs) and the less abundant, but widespread, facilitatory A 2A Rs. It is …