Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex, multi-system neurodegenerative disorder. The
second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease, it affects …

Dendritic spines are small, thin, specialized protrusions from neuronal dendrites, primarily
localized in the excitatory synapses. Sophisticated imaging techniques revealed that …

Loss of dopamine in Parkinson's disease is hypothesized to impede movement by inducing
hypo-and hyperactivity in striatal spiny projection neurons (SPNs) of the direct (dSPNs) and …

Deep brain stimulation (DBS), applying high-frequency electrical stimulation to deep brain
structures, has now provided an effective therapeutic option for treatment of various …

The basal ganglia are a chain of subcortical nuclei that facilitate action selection. Two striatal
projection systems—so-called direct and indirect pathways—form the functional backbone of …

Neural circuits of the basal ganglia are critical for motor planning and action selection,,. Two
parallel basal ganglia pathways have been described, and have been proposed to exert …

Bradykinesia is one of the cardinal motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease and other
parkinsonisms. The various clinical aspects related to bradykinesia and the …

A dopaminergic deficiency in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) causes abnormalities of
movement, behaviour, learning, and emotions. The main motor features (ie, tremor, rigidity …

The dorsal striatum, which consists of the caudate and putamen, is the gateway to the basal
ganglia. It receives convergent excitatory afferents from cortex and thalamus and forms the …

At synapses between cortical pyramidal neurons and principal striatal medium spiny
neurons (MSNs), postsynaptic D1 and D2 dopamine (DA) receptors are postulated to be …