Abstract Immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICBs), in addition to targeting CTLA-4, PD-1, and PD-
L1, novel targeting LAG-3 drugs have also been approved in clinical application. With the …

Immune evasion and altered metabolism, where glucose utilization is diverted to increased
lactic acid production, are two fundamental hallmarks of cancer. Although lactic acid has …

Characterized by the expression of the critical transcription factor forkhead box protein P3,
regulatory T (Treg) cells are an essential part of the immune system, with a dual effect on the …

Nanomedicine has emerged as a promising mean to improve theranostic efficacy and
reduce side effects. Currently, only very small percentage of injected dose reaches the solid …

Metabolism drives function, on both an organismal and a cellular level. In T cell biology,
metabolic remodeling is intrinsically linked to cellular development, activation, function …

Increasing clinical evidence has demonstrated that the deletion or mutation of tumor
suppressor genes such as the gene-encoding phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on …

Abstract Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenases (IDO1 and IDO2) and tryptophan 2, 3-dioxygenase
(TDO) are tryptophan catabolic enzymes that catalyze the conversion of tryptophan into …

Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase (IDO) has immunoregulatory roles associated with tryptophan
metabolism. These include counter-regulation (controlling inflammation) and acquired …

Immunosuppressive regulatory T cells (Tregs) provide a main mechanism of tumor immune
evasion. Targeting Tregs, especially in the tumor microenvironment (TME), continues to be …

Abstract Indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) is a rate-limiting metabolic enzyme that
converts the essential amino acid tryptophan (Trp) into downstream catabolites known as …