Lucid dreaming refers to the phenomenon of becoming aware of the fact that one is
dreaming during ongoing sleep. Despite having been physiologically validated for decades …

Introduction 3. Brainstem arousal systems 3.1. The reticular formation 3.2. The cholinergic
ponto-mesencephalic neurons 3.3. The noradrenergic locus coeruleus neurons 3.4. The …

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is an important component of the natural sleep/wake
cycle, yet the mechanisms that regulate REM sleep remain incompletely understood …

Recent research in the neurobiology of dreaming sleep provides new evidence for possible
structural and functional substrates of formal aspects of the dream process. The data …

Background Brainstem-focused mechanisms supporting transcutaneous auricular VNS
(taVNS) effects are not well understood, particularly in humans. We employed ultrahigh field …

Cerebral concussion is both the most common and most puzzling type of traumatic brain
injury (TBI). It is normally produced by acceleration (or deceleration) of the head and is …

Wakefulness, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and non–rapid eye movement (NREM)
sleep are characterized by distinct electroencephalogram (EEG), electromyogram (EMG) …

In 1955, noting that the locus coeruleus (LC) had “received only scant attention,” Russell
(1955) reviewed and extended the study of the comparative anatomy of this nucleus …

The human brainstem plays a central role in connecting the cerebrum, the cerebellum and
the spinal cord to one another, hosting relay nuclei for afferent and efferent signaling, and …

Kainic acid was injected bilaterally (4.8 μg in 1.2 μl each side) into the dorsolateral
pontomesencephalic tegmentum of cats in order to destroy the cholinergic neurons located …