The human stress response has evolved to maintain homeostasis under conditions of real or
perceived stress. This objective is achieved through autoregulatory neural and hormonal …

The activation of stress-related neuroendocrine systems helps to maintain homeostasis, but
excessive stress can damage body functions. We review current evidence from basic …

Understanding and assessing endocrine response to stress is crucial to human performance
analysis, stress-related disorder diagnosis, and mental health monitoring. Current …

Monocytes and macrophages are central players of the innate immune response and play a
pivotal role in the regulation of inflammation. Thereby, they actively participate in all phases …

INTRODUCTION The interaction among cell-autonomous circadian oscillators—daily cycles
of activity–rest and feeding–fasting—produces diurnal rhythms in gene expression in almost …

Feeding, which is essential for all animals, is regulated by homeostatic mechanisms. In
addition, food consumption is temporally coordinated by the brain over the circadian (~ 24 h) …

The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis is the major neuroendocrine axis regulating
homeostasis in mammals. Glucocorticoid hormones are rapidly synthesized and secreted …

Trade-offs and constraints are inherent to life, and studies of these phenomena play a
central role in both organismal and evolutionary biology. Trade-offs can be defined …

Glucose levels in blood must be constantly maintained within a tight physiological range to
sustain anabolism. Insulin regulates glucose homeostasis via its effects on glucose …

Adrenal insufficiency (AI) is a condition characterized by an absolute or relative deficiency of
adrenal cortisol production. Primary AI (PAI) is rare and is caused by direct adrenal failure …