The two β-arrestins, β-arrestin-1 and-2 (systematic names: arrestin-2 and-3, respectively),
are multifunctional intracellular proteins that regulate the activity of a very large number of …

A great deal of experimental evidence suggests that ligands can stabilize different receptor
active states that go on to interact with cellular signaling proteins to form a range of different …

The opioid receptor family comprises three members, the µ-, δ-and κ-opioid receptors, which
respond to classical opioid alkaloids such as morphine and heroin as well as to …

The roles of opioid receptors in pain and addiction have been extensively studied, but their
function in mood disorders has received less attention. Accumulating evidence from animal …

In ligand bias different agonist drugs are thought to produce distinct signaling outputs when
activating the same receptor. If these signaling outputs mediate therapeutic versus adverse …

Substance use disorders (SUDs), defined as a collection of symptoms including tolerance
and withdrawal, are chronic illnesses characterized by relapse and remission. In the United …

Drug addiction is a worldwide societal problem and public health burden, and results from
recreational drug use that develops into a complex brain disorder. The opioid system, one of …

Opioid receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that modulate brain function at
all levels of neural integration, including autonomic, sensory, emotional and cognitive …

Achieving effective pain management is one of the major challenges associated with
modern day medicine. Opioids, such as morphine, have been the reference treatment for …

Comorbidity is a major issue in psychiatry that notably associates with more severe
symptoms, longer illness duration, and higher service utilization. Therefore, identifying key …