Understanding sex-related variation in health and illness requires rigorous and precise
approaches to revealing underlying mechanisms. A first step is to recognize that sex is not in …

Teleost fishes show an extraordinary diversity of sexual patterns, social structures, and
sociosexual behaviors. Sex steroid hormones are key modulators of social behaviors in …

The history of sex research demonstrates an ongoing coexistence of multiple, conflicting
meanings of sex. This history raises questions for scientists about the deployment of a …

Across the animal kingdom there are myriad forms within a sex across, and even within,
species, rendering concepts of universal sex traits moot. The mechanisms that regulate the …

Sex is ubiquitous and variable throughout the animal kingdom. Historically, scientists have
used reductionist methodologies that rely on a priori sex categorizations, in which two …

In her influential book “Developmental Plasticity and Evolution,” Mary Jane West-Eberhard
introduced the concept of cross-sexual transfer, where traits expressed in one sex in an …

Essentially all neuropsychiatric diagnoses show some degree of sex and/or gender
differences in their etiology, diagnosis, or prognosis. As a result, the roles of sex-related …

Sexual conflict is a thriving area of animal behaviour research. Yet parallel research in the
evolutionary human sciences remains underdeveloped and has become mired by …

Women's representation in science is increasing steadily, with some fields closing gender
parity in terms of participation and scientific output. Animal cognition appears to fall into that …

What are the implications of misunderstanding sex as a binary, and why is it essential for
scientists to incorporate a more expansive view of biological sex in our teaching and …