All nervous systems are subject to neuromodulation. Neuromodulators can be delivered as
local hormones, as cotransmitters in projection neurons, and through the general circulation …

Neuromodulation provides considerable flexibility to the output of neural networks. In spite of
the extensive literature documenting the presence of modulatory peptide co-transmitters in …

The elusive diversity of neurons puzzled neuroscientists since discovering the first nerve
cells in the 1830s. Quantitative information about neuronal diversity began to flow from the …

It has been known for more than 40 years that individual neurons can produce more than
one neurotransmitter and that neuropeptides often are colocalized with small molecule …

All NERVOUS SYSTEMS, though highly intercon-nected, can be subdivided into functional
circuits that are frequently anatomically distinct from one another. A circuit is defined here as …

Insulin signaling plays a pivotal role in metabolic control and aging, and insulin accordingly
is a key factor in several human diseases. Despite this importance, the in vivo activity …

As part of continuous research on the neurobiology of the locust, the distribution and
functions of neurotransmitter candidates in the nervous system have been analyzed …

Stick insect (Carausius morosus) leg muscles contract and relax slowly. Control of stick
insect leg posture and movement could therefore differ from that in animals with faster …

Recent data on the distribution and possible functions of transmitter candidates in the insect
brain are summarized, with an emphasis on the general principles of transmitter distribution …

Neuromodulation of motor circuits by extrinsic inputs provides enormous flexibility in the
production of behavior. Recent work has shown that neurons intrinsic to central pattern …