The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, a neuroendocrine network that controls
hormonal responses to internal and external challenges in an organism's environment …

There is increasing evidence in humans and laboratory animals for biologically based sex
differences in every phase of drug addiction: acute reinforcing effects, transition from …

Observations of the disproportionate incidence of depression in women compared with men
have long preceded the recent explosion of interest in sex differences. Nonetheless, the …

This review summarizes recent evidence concerning hormonal and sex chromosome effects
in obesity, atherosclerosis, aneurysms, ischemia/reperfusion injury, and hypertension …

The study of sex differences in the brain is a topic of neuroscientific study that has broad
reaching implications for culture, society and biomedical science. Recent research in rodent …

Parkinson's disease (PD) displays a greater prevalence and earlier age at onset in men.
This review addresses the concept that sex differences in PD are determined, largely, by …

The mesolimbic dopamine system—which originates in the ventral tegmental area and
projects to the striatum—has been shown to be involved in the expression of sex-specific …

Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC) are much more common in males, a bias that may offer
clues to the etiology of this condition. Although the cause of this bias remains a mystery, we …

In 2001 the Institute of Medicine, a branch of the National Academy of Sciences in the USA,
concluded that many aspects of both normal and pathological brain functioning exhibit …

A general theory of mammalian sexual differentiation is proposed. All biological sex
differences are the result of the inequality in effects of the sex chromosomes, which are the …