Metacognition refers to the knowledge and regulation of one's own cognitive processes,
which has been regarded as a critical component of creative thinking. However, the current …

Recent research in a text-based educational context has demonstrated a seemingly
paradoxical disfluency effect in reading, namely that learning with hard-to-read (disfluent) …

Presenting information in a perceptually degraded format sometimes enhances learning
outcomes. However, earlier studies in which words were presented in large or small fonts in …

As counterpart of fluency, the concept of disfluency refers to the metacognitive experience of
ease or difficulty associated with completing a mental task. If task completion is perceived as …

While some difficult learning conditions can improve learning, the findings regarding the
contribution to learning of disfluent, hard-to-read text materials have been inconsistent. We …

Do students learn better with texts that are (ie, disfluent)? Previous research yielded
discrepant findings concerning this question. To clarify these discrepancies, the present …

Abstract Recently, Diemand-Yauman et al. Cognition, 118, 114–118 (2011) demonstrated
that learning with disfluent (hard-to-read) materials is more effective than learning with easy …

When reading, we frequently find ourselves thinking about something other than the text.
These attentional lapses, known as mind wandering (MW), are negatively correlated with …

In the 2018 meta-analysis of Educational Psychology Review entitled “Null effects of
perceptual disfluency on learning outcomes in a text-based educational context” by Xie …

Cognitive challenges that are presented through the modification of established design
principles may contribute to learning. One such challenge to the promotion of deeper …